The plus-minus grades may be adjusted to fit the circumstances at the discretion of the instructor.

* Component of mid-term grade.

Think of Biology 220 - Invertebrate Zoology - as the first half of a year-long course in Zoology. In this semester, we will consider the animals which lack a backbone; next semester we will study those animals which have backbones. This rather artificial division leaves us to study the vast majority of animals this fall. Invertebrates are considered by most laypeople to be rather unimportant - small, primitive, unsuccessful, creepy animals. Biologists know better; the invertebrates are tremendously successful, comprising over 95% of all living animal species. By some estimates, a single order of invertebrates - the beetles - comprise about 25% of all living animal species. Nor can invertebrates be dismissed as primitive or small - for example a giant squid has eyes comparable to a vertebrate’s and is over 30m long. We will grant, for the moment, to the layperson that invertebrates are "creepy"; hopefully you will gain a better appreciation of this group this semester.

I hate classes that force you to memorize things, but, unfortunately, you will have to memorize at least the names of the phyla, about 35 names, and the names of some of the more important classes (subdivisions of the phyla). We will consider the classes of only the more important groups, and you may be familiar with some of these already. For the insects, we will also consider classification at the ordinal level (subdivision of class). The reason for this memorization is simple. We organize our knowledge about organisms through our classification systems. If you want to know something about an organism, the first step is to learn its name. Once we have the names down, and can tell the groups apart, we will turn to looking collectively at how each of these groups solve the common ecological problems of moving around, feeding, reproducing, etc. You will find this comparative approach to be a quite powerful learning tool that will greatly simplify your task of organizing the material in your own mind.

To help you visualize what these animals really look like, we will spend a lot of time in lab learning to identify them. We will try to catch as many of the specimens as we can on field trips, so that you can learn the more common invertebrates in your own habitat (how many of us live on the bottom of ocean trenches?) and study the living animals free of nasty-smelling preservatives. We will supplement this field material with preserved material, especially preserved marine organisms, since, who knows, you might end up as a marine biologist and care what is on the bottom of ocean trenches. Later in the semester, when it's cold outside, we will stay inside and study and sort our collections.

Methods to achieve this goal:

1. Preparation of a class collection.
2. Individual use of videodisc images for self-study.
3. Use of a computerized database.
4. Student presentations.
5. Viewing slides of representative species in class.

Evaluation/criteria for success:

1. Each student will correctly identify at least 70% of the specimens on a practical.
2. Each individual student will collect at least ____ species/life stages.
3. The class collection will have at least _______ species/life stages represented.

Goal 2. Each student will understand the basic concepts of zoological classification. In addition, each student will learn the basics of reproduction, skeletal systems, movement, homeostasis, circulation, gas exchange, and ecology as they apply to invertebrates. Finally, each student will know the characteristics associated with major groups.

Methods to achieve this goal:

1. Identification of collected material.
2. Assigned readings from the text.
3. Occasional assigned readings.
4. Small group/class discussions.
5. Lectures by the instructor.

Evaluation/criteria for success:

1. Each student will pass objective tests and quizzes on the assigned material. A standard 60-70-80-90-100 grade scale will be used for evaluation.

Goal 3. Each student will learn how to gather zoological information from our library, and how to assemble that information into a well-written report.

Methods to achieve this goal:

1. Selection of an invertebrate taxon by each student, to be compared with one selected by the instructor.
2. A guided, evening tour of the library.
3. Location of at least 15 references in our library; 5 of which are peer-reviewed papers in refereed journals.
4. Completion of a 10-15 page (typed, double spaced) research paper on the biology of the selected taxa.
5. Revision of the paper after review by the instructor.

Evaluation/criteria for success:

1. Completion of a satisfactory paper. Details on evaluation are included with the paper assignment.

Goal 4. Each student will learn to work better with others; develop crucial small-group skills, and form a learning community with fellow students.

Methods to achieve this goal:

1. Working together on the class collection.
2. Small group discussions.
3. Informal study groups.

Evaluation/criteria for success:

1. The class collection will reach its goal.
2. Class discussions will be lively and friendly.
3. Individual student grades will be higher than they would be if students worked individually.

Goal 5. The class will be fun.

Methods to achieve this goal:

1. Field trips during nice weather.
2. An atmosphere of academic respect and cooperation.
3. Satisfaction of tackling a large project together.

I challenge you, as a class, to complete a properly labeled and mounted collection of _______different species and/or life stages of indigenous invertebrates. I had to collect over 260 species in one semester for a undergraduate/graduate course in Entomology several years ago. My collection was based on an extremely complicated formula which forced me to collect a great diversity of organisms, and it was everyone for him or herself, with some trading allowed. Despite the competitive nature of the class, we cooperated and it became one of the best experiences of my education. Now it’s your turn.

Collecting 250+ species should not be too difficult for a group of 5 or more people. We’ll probably get a substantial number on field trips, but you will have to do some collecting on your own time as well. You’ll have to learn to think like an invertebrate (I’ve always found that part easy enough) and then outsmart them (that’s the tricky part). Remember, you are not limited to insects; any invertebrate is eligible as long as it is collected after the start of classes. Representatives of different life stages of the same species will count as additional species with one exception; eggs will not count. For a species to count it must be properly identified to order (most invertebrates) or the family level (insects). Each specimen must be properly labeled as well. The class must turn in the collection as a unified whole.

I think this is a doable challenge for you. If the goal is not met, I will subtract ___________ for each species the class is short from each student’s lab grade. For each species that the class collects in excess of ________, I will give everyone 1/5 of a point, to a maximum of 10 "bonus" points.

In order to make sure that everyone in the class pulls their own weight in terms of the class collection, each student must also complete an individual collection. Any individual specimen can be used as part of both an individual and the class collection. The individual collection will be scored as follows:

*Misidentifications will cost this many points as well (all insects must be placed in the proper order and family, other specimens in at least the correct order). A collection may have up to 100 specimens and receive up to 450 points.

The paper for invertebrate zoology has several goals. It is meant to acquaint you with information gathering techniques, to focus your attention on a taxon so that you will learn about it in depth, and, of course, to improve your writing skills. The first step in writing the paper is for you to choose a taxon to research. I will then choose a taxon for you to compare and contrast your taxon with. The paper that you will write as part of this project will compare and contrast the two taxa, their phylogenetic and evolutionary relationships, and their morphology, anatomy, physiology, behavior and ecology.

You should research the taxa thoroughly, consulting sources beyond your textbook and small guidebooks. I expect to see evidence of significant library work, including recent references from the primary sources (scientific journals). Pay particular attention to how you organize and arrange topics and the transitions between topics - be sure to have a logical development of your paper. Your paper should be illustrated with appropriate drawings, photographs, maps, tables, etc. as you see necessary. I prefer original illustrations to those photocopied from your sources. Of course the paper will be typed, with no grammatical or spelling errors. Keep the text of the paper under 15 pages. Cite all references in the text following the style of the Ohio Journal of Science (Harvard system).

I make a big deal out of insisting on proper reference citation and the use of primary sources. Since scientific writing differs from the experiences you may have had in English classes; let me clarify these two points.

Every idea you get from another source must acknowledge that source in the text where the idea is stated. This is known as citation, and failure to do so is plagiarism. The general rule is that any information that is not general knowledge (that is, anything you found in an article, book etc.) must have the reference cited. For instance, the fact that a mayfly is an insect is general knowledge, the fact that the mayfly Stenacron interpunctatum prefers slow currents is not, and must be cited. If you do original experiments or make original observations, you do not need to cite these, but you must also include a methods section so that others may try to reproduce your results. Note that original conclusions that you draw based on information presented need not be cited. For instance, if Jones reported in 1985 that a species of ant is dependent on a certain plant, and Smith reported in 1986 that the plant is going extinct, then you could conclude that the ant is also going extinct - but even here you would have to cite Jones and Smith as evidence for your conclusion. Similarly, if Thompson says that there are 315 species of bees in Borneo, and you write " there are over 300 species of bees in Borneo ", or "there's bunches of bees in Borneo", you must acknowledge Thompson, even though you didn't quote her exactly. If you hadn't gotten the idea from her, you wouldn't have had a clue as to how many bees there were (short of counting them, then your paper would be a primary source). If in doubt - cite the source!

Consider the following paragraph from a paper I wrote:

The first sentence has no citations; it is a fact derived from my study of the literature. The next sentence is transitional and introduces no new information, just an obvious truism. The remaining sentences summarize the results of other worker's studies, and I gave them each credit for what they discovered. Note that each citation is accomplished by stating the author(s) name(s) and the date of the paper in such a way that it is clearly associated with the idea being discussed. Often, the name is part of the sentence, and only the date is enclosed in parentheses; however, it is also proper simply to put both the name and the date in parentheses, as is done in the last sentence. The abbreviation "et al." is used when more than two authors wrote a paper.

This form of citation is very common (but not universal), and I want you to use it. Read through several articles in The Ohio Journal of Science to get a feel for the general style of scientific writing, as well as how to handle references.

The next most common mistake I encounter (after failing to cite a reference at all) is what I call "lumping". This occurs when all of the information you use in a paragraph comes from the same source, and you try to reference that source simply by putting it at the end of the paragraph. That is not acceptable. You must acknowledge a source within the sentence (or clause) in which you use it. If that means that each sentence in your paragraph ends with (Brown, 1986), so be it. If that monotony bothers you (and it should), you can avoid it by finding more sources to cite, or citing the one source in different ways: Brown (1986), according to Brown (1986), Brown (1986) also found, and so on.

A note on quotes: In the humanities, frequently the exact wording of the ideas of the author under consideration is critical to the reader's understanding of the points being made in the paper. In this context, it is necessary to use exact quotes (with citations!). In the sciences, we are supposed to be "objective". This means writing methods sections in the passive voice to avoid the use of the pronoun "I", which distracts the reader from the work that was done and focuses attention on the scientist who performed it. Quotes also take emphasis away from the results and put emphasis on personalities. Unless the exact wording of the author you are citing is critical to the concept you are reviewing, paraphrase the author(s) and cite appropriately. Note that changing one or two words is not enough to paraphrase correctly - it must be a substantial revision, or again, you will be guilty of plagiarism. One way to avoid inadvertently quoting an author exactly is to paraphrase as you make notes, and then paraphrase your notes as you write your paper.

At the end of the paper, you must have a section listing all the papers you have cited. Again, follow the format in the Ohio Journal of Science. Do yourself a favor, and find an article now (preferably one dealing with your topic), and photocopy it, so that you can use it as a guide to solving different style problems. Note that journal articles are handled differently than books in the Literature Cited section. Pay attention to where the periods and commas go, but don't get too paranoid about these - be consistent.

O.K. - I know what you're thinking - where do I find these references - in our library? First of all, our library is an excellent source, and nothing to be ashamed of. What it lacks in size it makes up for in ease of use. The following tips will help you get started:

• Avoid the encyclopedias - you're not in high school.
• Go to the on-line catalog, and look up your subject.
• Go to the stacks - find the book. - Look at the books around it (they're organized by subject)
• Examine your textbook. Note the selected references at the end of each chapter.
• Examine books in the Biology Reading Room (Bartlett 105) and in the lab. - Examine their bibliographies.
• From the sources above, note which journal names keep popping up.
• Find those journals in the library. - Examine recent issues for articles of interest. - Examine their bibliographies.
• Do a search:
• Use Biosis on line.

In this class, I do not require that you use interlibrary loans, although you are free to do so if you wish. I will not accept the excuse "I’m waiting for an interlibrary loan." on this project. Concentrate on finding the references in our library. If you can’t find enough, perhaps you need to choose a different taxon. If you need to make a change, do so early on and get it approved by me.

Finally, what is a primary source, and what's all the fuss about? A primary source is one written by the person who has uncovered new knowledge - who has made a new observation or conducted an experiment (and thus didn't have to cite it when writing it up). As you can see from the diagram below, a primary journal contains the most recent, up-to- date written information. The stuff in books and textbooks may be up to ten years old, and may have been superseded by subsequent studies. Also, the material in most primary journals is subject to peer review - that is, review by other scientists for scientific (as opposed to editorial) accuracy.

The problem with primary sources is that they are written by specialists, for specialists, and appear in many different journals, some of which are hard to come by. Secondary journals help with this problem by consolidating information on a given topic. Such articles are usually written by experts in a field, but often are written for non-specialists or even lay people; most all are carefully referenced. The price is timeliness. Books consolidate matters even further. Many conform to strict citation of sources, but some do not, making it difficult to backtrack to original papers. Textbooks are in the same boat. While you may find useful information in non-technical sources (Time magazine, U.S.A. Today, etc.), these rarely cite their sources and are thus scientific hearsay - inadmissible in court, so to speak. The same for encyclopedias, comic books, the little books that come with insecticides, and so on - yes, even your trusty invertebrate or vertebrate zoology class notes.

If it’s not clear already, let me be specific. Your 15 sources may not include any non-scientific sources. You may cite these, but you must have at least 15 other valid references.

1. Select a taxon by the end of week 2

2. Do a literature search

3. Prepare a first draft (Due ___________________)

1. Rewrite the paper.
2. Submit final draft (and prior drafts) (Due _____________________)

The paper must be typed; with 2 drafts due you would be well-advised to use a word processor. These are available in our very own computer lab.

At each stage, your paper will be graded. When you submit the final draft, you must also turn in the marked copy of your earlier draft so that I can check to be sure that you have made corrections. Failure to do so will result in a grade penalty. Illustrations from one draft can be "recycled" in the final draft, they need not be redone. The standards will increase with the final draft. Only the final grade will be recorded.

The following table may help you understand the criteria I use in grading: